Trans-European-networks and the development of transport in the Eastern Baltic Sea region

The European Unions?s task of providing Trans-European Networks (TENs) in transportation, communications and energy transmission which has been enacted by the treaty of Maastricht, is not confined to internal networks in the EU. Since 1994 this task has been widened so as to give support to the economies in transition (EIT) in Central and Eastern Europe that have applied for EU membership. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the relative importance of the various measures taken in the course of the TEN initiative in the field of transport for economic development of the EIT on the Eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. These actions are taking place in a variety of different fields. Transport infrastracuture upgrading is initiated both in general and with respect to specific links between the EU and the EIT. Apparently, the Baltic Rim EIT ? as all former CMEA members ? suffered and still suffer from the legacy of the socialist past insofar as road, rail and air traffic infrastructure facilities are underdeveloped, in large parts worn-out, or do not comply with quality standards which are necessary for easy accessibility. This has been acknowledged both by the Baltic Rim EIT and by the international community which is supporting network upgrading in all Baltic Rim EIT. Specific infrastructure measures refer to the Pan-European ?Crete Corridors?, i.e. the links between EU members and associated EIT (such as the Via Baltica motorway project), which serve as guiding scheme for EU accession support for EIT in transport infrastructure construction. Other ?hardware? measures are related to the construction of border stations to allow for rapid operational co- operation or customs clearance procedures. In addition, the EU is promoting telematics in the whole Baltic Sea Region in order to facilitate freight traffic. On the ?software? side, TEN initiatives have been enacted to harmonize infrastructure cross-border planning, in particular for Crete Corridors? supervising committees, to account for network externalities. If one widens the narrow definition of infrastructure to institutions, the adjustment of transport regulatory systems of would-be entrants among the EITs to EU regulations and competition policy can also be subsumed under the heading of TENs. The paper will consider these actual approaches of European transport policy as well as the needs of the EIT. Though missing infrastructure links and insufficient capacities are more visible, it turns out that ?software? problems (both from the sphere of regulatory regimes and from administrative procedures) seem to be the most pressing obstacles to transport and trade on the Baltic Rim. The paper will discuss the pros and cons of the various TEN components in transport from the perspective of fiscal federalism and of regional development aid for the EIT. Furthermore it will refer to issues of modal split, in particular with respect to Russia (for which the Baltic Rim is an important transit point), and to intermodal competition between land transport and the Baltic sea lane.

Internet, adjustment of firms and the spatial division of labour

The rise of the Internet has been heralded as the 'death of distance' that may eventually entail a 'decline of the city'. Whether or not these futuristic visions will materialize will depend upon how firms and industries react to the Internet as a general-purpose technology. Besides the locational choice of New Economy firms themselves it is the adoption of E-commerce in industries of the 'old' economy which has the potential for re-shaping the economic geography of regions, and which may, in many instances radically so, change the way to manage the internal organization of firms as well as relationships with business partners (B2B) and with consumers (B2C). The paper aims at discussing elements of a conceptual approach for evaluating these spatial effects of E-commerce activities on locational patterns in the old economy by identifying suitable proxy indicators from existing evidence, such as connectivity to IT-infrastructures, sectoral differences in B2B solutions, market (de-)concentration processes, or changes of functional employment structures of cities. Key words: Internet, E-commerce, Organizational Change, Firm Location, Spatial Division of Labour

European Integration and Changing Trade Patterns: The Case of the Baltic States

The analysis of Baltic regional trade patterns reveals that during the nineties the Baltic states made significant progress to integrate into the Western European division of labour although a significant share of (transit) trade with Russia remained. In view of this development, history seems to matter with respect to the interwar period and the period of Soviet occupation. In addition, a trade entropy analysis and gravity model estimates show that European integration of the Baltic states has a regional centre of gravity located in the Baltic Sea region. The Baltic trade flows increasingly follow the gravitational forces that generally shape trade relations, while regional integration is still much more important than it is normally the case.Eastern enlargement, regional integration, gravity model, Baltic trade patterns

Die Bahnstrukturreform: richtige Weichenstellung oder Fahrt aufs Abstellgleis?

Mit der zum 1. Januar 1994 in Kraft getretenen Bahnstrukturreform wurde der Bahnbetrieb in Deutschland in eine private Rechtsreform überführt. Die neugegründete Deutsche Bahn AG (DBAG) wurde in die Sparten Fahrweg, Güterverkehr, Personenfernverkehr und Personennahverkehr unterteilt und von den Schulden ihrer Rechtsvorgängerinnen Deutsche Bundesbahn (DB) und Deutsche Reichsbahn (DR) entlastet. Ab 1. Januar 1996 soll zudem im Rahmen der sogenannten Regionalisierung die organisatorische und finanzielle Verantwortung für den Schienenpersonennahverkehr auf die Länder und Kommunen übergehen. Die Bahnstrukturreform war angesichts der desolaten finanziellen Lage der DB und der DR unverzichtbar. Mit der Befreiung der Bahn von den Fesseln des öffentlichen Dienstrechts, mit den Ansätzen zu einer Trennung von Fahrweg und Betrieb sowie mit der Möglichkeit für Dritte, das Schienennetz gegen Entgelt zu nutzen, stellt die Reform vom Konzept her eine richtige Weichenstellung dar. Sie legt die Grundlagen dafür, daß der Schienenverkehr in Deutschland künftig effizienter gestaltet werden kann und nicht aufs Abstellgleis fährt. Gleichwohl reicht die Reform in mehreren Strukturmerkmalen nicht weit genug, um den erhofften Erfolg garantieren zu können: — Bis nach der Jahrtausendwende bleibt es bei einer nur formalen Privatisierung. Hinsichtlich einer materiellen Privatisierung — der Veräußerung des Kapitals der DBAG an Private — ist der Gesetzgeber keinerlei Selbstbindung eingegangen, im Fahrwegbereich ist eine Privatisierung nur sehr beschränkt möglich und wenig wahrscheinlich. Damit ist die Bahn letztlich trotz ihrer privaten Rechtsform nicht konkursfähig. Es besteht die Gefahr, daß dies negative Anreizwirkungen bei der Kostenkontrolle und bei der Gestaltung einer marktgerechten Leistungspalette hat. — Die institutionelle Trennung von Fahrweg und Betrieb ist im Reformkonzept zwar vorgesehen, bleibt aber unvollständig, solange die Betriebssparten mit der Sparte Fahrweg unter dem Dach der DBAG vereinigt und nicht materiell privatisiert sind. Zu befürchten ist, daß die DBAG-eigenen Betriebsbereiche bei der Vergabe der Betriebsrechte bevorzugt werden. — Die Kosten des derzeit noch aufgeblähten Personalapparats der Bahn fallen aus gesamtwirtschaftlicher Sicht nicht weg, sondern werden lediglich auf das ebenfalls neueingerichtete Bundeseisenbahnvermögen umgebucht. Nennenswerte Einsparungen im Personalbereich werden daher erst in späteren Phasen der Reform zu verzeichnen sein. — Eine umfassende Entschuldung der Bahn war zwar notwendig, weil DB und DR aus handelsrechtlicher Sicht praktisch zahlungsunfähig waren. Es ist aber nicht zwingend, daß die im Zuge der Tilgung der Altschulden anfallenden Ausgaben durch höhere Steuern und nicht durch niedrigere Ausgaben an anderer Stelle im Bundeshaushalt finanziert werden. — Die 1996 anstehende Regionalisierung des Nahverkehrs ist grundsätzlich sinnvoll, weil hier das Subsidiaritätsprinzip zum Tragen kommt. Die weitgehende und dynamisierte Kostenübernahme durch den Bund kann allerdings die Kostendisziplin bei den Ländern beeinträchtigen. --

New Protectionism, Sanctions and EU Disintegration: Challenges for Baltic Trade

Against the backdrop of the Estonian Presidency of the Council of the European Union in the second half of 2017 the authors propose to focus the political agenda on the threats to free trade which emerged by the protectionist views of the Trump government, the imminent weakening of the EU Common Market in course of the Brexit and the still lingering conflict with Russia which is accompanied by trade sanctions. The authors show how far the three Baltic States depend on trade with Russia, the United Kingdom and the USA by a share analysis of disaggregated trade flows and a gravity analysis of trade relations. The analyses reveal that Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania could be affected negatively by all the three challenges to the free movements of goods and services. While they are still trading over-proportionally with Russia the attractiveness of UK and US markets for Baltic enterprises is already visible and these markets offer further development potential. Hence, the promotion of the concept of open markets would not only help bridging political divides but it would also foster the Baltic States’ gains from globalization and would reduce economic and political dependencie